Politics and government of Rwanda
The President of Rwanda is the head of state,and has broad powers including creating policy in conjunction with the Cabinet,exercising the prerogative of mercy,commanding the armed forces,negotiating and ratifying treaties,signing presidential orders,and declaring war or a state of emergency.The President is elected by popular vote every seven years,and appoints the Prime Minister and all other members of Cabinet.The incumbent president is Paul Kagame, who took office upon the resignation of his predecessor, Pasteur Bizimungu, in 2000. Kagame subsequently won elections in 2003 and 2010,although human rights organisations have criticised these elections as being "marked by increasing political repression and a crackdown on free speech".Article 101 of the constitution had previously limited presidents to two terms in office,but this was changed in a 2015 referendum, which had been brought following receipt of a petition signed by 3.8 million Rwandans.Through this change in the constitution, Kagame could stay on as president until 2034.Kagame was elected for a third term in 2017 with 98.79% of the vote.
The constitution
was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional
constitution which had been in place since 1994. The constitution mandates a
multi-party system of government, with politics based on democracy and
elections.However, the constitution places conditions on how political parties
may operate. Article 54 states that "political organizations are
prohibited from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region,
sex, religion or any other division which may give rise to
discrimination".The government has also enacted laws criminalising
genocide ideology, which can include intimidation, defamatory speeches,
genocide denial and mocking of victims.According to Human Rights Watch, these
laws effectively make Rwanda a one-party state, as "under the guise of
preventing another genocide, the government displays a marked intolerance of the
most basic forms of dissent".Amnesty International is also critical; in
its 2014/15 report, Amnesty said that laws against inciting insurrection or
trouble among the population had been used to imprison people "for the
legitimate exercise of their rights to freedom of association or of
expression".
The Parliament
consists of two chambers. It makes legislation and is empowered by the
constitution to oversee the activities of the President and the Cabinet.The
lower chamber is the Chamber of Deputies, which has 80 members serving
five-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats are reserved for women, elected
through a joint assembly of local government officials; another three seats are
reserved for youth and disabled members; the remaining 53 are elected by
universal suffrage under a proportional representation system.Following the
2018 election, there are 49 female deputies,down from 51 in 2013;as of 2020,
Rwanda is one of only three countries with a female majority in the national
parliament.The upper chamber is the 26-seat Senate, whose members are selected
by a variety of bodies. A mandatory minimum of 30% of the senators are women. Senators
serve eight-year terms.
Rwanda's legal system is largely based on German and Belgian civil law systems and customary law.The judiciary is independent of the executive branch,although the President and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court judges.Human Rights Watch have praised the Rwandan government for progress made in the delivery of justice including the abolition of the death penalty,but also allege interference in the judicial system by members of the government, such as the politically motivated appointment of judges, misuse of prosecutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.The constitution provides for two types of courts: ordinary and specialised.Ordinary courts are the Supreme Court, the High Court, and regional courts, while specialised courts are military courts and a system of commercial courts created in 2011 to expedite commercial litigations.Between 2004 and 2012, a system of Gacaca courts was in operation.Gacaca, a Rwandan traditional court operated by villages and communities, was revived to expedite the trials of genocide suspects.The court succeeded in clearing the backlog of genocide cases, but was criticised by human rights groups as not meeting legal fair standard.
Rwanda has low corruption levels relative to most other African countries; in 2014, Transparency International ranked Rwanda as the fifth cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and 55th cleanest out of 175 in the world.The constitution provides for an Ombudsman, whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption.Public officials (including the President) are required by the constitution to declare their wealth to the Ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comply are suspended from office.
The Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF) has been the dominant political party in the country
since 1994. The RPF has maintained control of the presidency and the Parliament
in national elections, with the party's vote share consistently exceeding 70%.
The RPF is seen as a Tutsi-dominated party but receives support from across the
country, and is credited with ensuring continued peace, stability, and economic
growth.Human rights organisation Freedom House claims that the government
suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups; in its 2015 report, Freedom House
alleged that the RPF had "prevented new political parties from registering
and arrested the leaders of several existing parties, effectively preventing
them from fielding candidates" in elections.Amnesty International also
claims that the RPF rules Rwanda "without any meaningful opposition".
Rwanda is a
member of the United Nations,African Union, Francophonie, East African
Community,and the Commonwealth of Nations.For many years during the Habyarimana
regime, the country maintained close ties with France, as well as Belgium, the
former colonial power.Under the RPF government, however, Rwanda has sought
closer ties with neighbouring countries in the East African Community and with
the English-speaking world. Diplomatic relations with France were suspended in
2006 following the indictment of Rwandan officials by a French judge,and
despite their restoration in 2010, as of 2015 relations between the countries
remain strained.Relations with the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) were
tense following Rwanda's involvement in the First and Second Congo Wars; the
Congolese army alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blamed the
Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in North and South
Kivu provinces.Relations soured further in 2012, as Kinshasa accused Rwanda of
supporting the M23 rebellion, an insurgency in the eastern Congo.As of 2015,
peace has been restored and relations are improving.Rwanda's relationship with
Uganda was also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the
two countries' armies as they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo
War,but improved significantly in the early 2010s.In 2019, relations between
the two countries deteriorated, with Rwanda closing its borders with Uganda.
The Rwanda
Defence Force (RDF) is the national army of
Geography of
At 26,338 square
kilometres (10,169 sq mi),
The watershed
between the major Congo and Nile drainage basins runs from north to south
through Rwanda, with around 80% of the country's area draining into the Nile
and 20% into the Congo via the Rusizi River and Lake Tanganyika.The country's
longest river is the Nyabarongo, which rises in the south-west, flows north,
east, and southeast before merging with the Ruvubu to form the Kagera; the
Kagera then flows due north along the eastern border with Tanzania. The
Nyabarongo-Kagera eventually drains into Lake Victoria, and its source in
Mountains
dominate central and western Rwanda and the country is sometimes called
"Pays des mille collines" in French ("Land of a thousand
hills").They are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the
Albertine branch of the East African Rift, which runs from north to south along
Rwanda's western border.The highest peaks are found in the Virunga volcano
chain in the northwest; this includes Mount Karisimbi, Rwanda's highest point,
at 4,507 metres (14,787 ft).This western section of the country lies within the
Albertine Rift montane forests ecoregion.It has an elevation of 1,500 to 2,500
metres (4,921 to 8,202 ft).The centre of the country is predominantly rolling
hills, while the eastern border region consists of savanna, plains and swamps.
Rwanda has a
temperate tropical highland climate, with lower temperatures than are typical
for equatorial countries because of its high elevation.Kigali, in the centre of
the country, has a typical daily temperature range between 12 and 27 °C (54 and
81 °F), with little variation through the year. There are some temperature
variations across the country; the mountainous west and north are generally cooler
than the lower-lying east. There are two rainy seasons in the year; the first
runs from February to June and the second from September to December. These are
separated by two dry seasons: the major one from June to September, during
which there is often no rain at all, and a shorter and less severe one from
December to February.Rainfall varies geographically, with the west and
northwest of the country receiving more precipitation annually than the east
and southeast.Global warming has caused a change in the pattern of the rainy
seasons. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group, change in
climate has reduced the number of rainy days experienced during a year, but has
also caused an increase in frequency of torrential rains.Both changes have
caused difficulty for farmers, decreasing their productivity. Strategic
Foresight also characterise Rwanda as a fast warming country, with an increase
in average temperature of between 0.7 °C to 0.9 °C over fifty years.
Biodiversity
In prehistoric times montane
forest occupied one-third of the territory of present-day
Giraffe in
The greatest diversity of
large mammals is found in the three National Parks, which are designated
conservation areas.Akagera contains typical savanna animals such as giraffes
and elephants, while Volcanoes is home to an estimated one-third of the worldwide
mountain gorilla population.Nyungwe Forest boasts thirteen primate species
including common chimpanzees and Ruwenzori colobus arboreal monkeys; the
Ruwenzori colobus move in groups of up to 400 individuals, the largest troop
size of any primate in Africa.
There are 670 bird species in
Recent entomological work in the country has revealed a rich diversity of praying mantises,including a new species Dystacta tigrifrutex, dubbed the "bush tiger mantis".
Economy of
Rwanda is a country of few
natural resources,and the economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture by
local farmers using simple tools.An estimated 90% of the working population
farms, and agriculture constituted an estimated 32.5% of GDP in 2014.Farming
techniques are basic, with small plots of land and steep slopes.Since the
mid-1980s, farm sizes and food production have been decreasing, due in part to
the resettlement of displaced people.Despite Rwanda's fertile ecosystem, food
production often does not keep pace with population growth, and food imports
are required,But in recent years, with the growth of agriculture, the situation
has improved.
Subsistence crops grown in
the country include matoke (green bananas), which occupy more than a third of
the country's farmland, potatoes, beans, sweet potatoes, cassava, wheat and
maize.Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export, with the high
altitudes, steep slopes and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions.Reports
have established that more than 400,000 Rwandans make their living from coffee
plantation.Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to shifts
in their prices.Animals raised in Rwanda include cows, goats, sheep, pigs,
chicken, and rabbits, with geographical variation in the numbers of each.Production
systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms
around Kigali. Shortages of land and water, insufficient and poor-quality feed,
and regular disease epidemics with insufficient veterinary services are major
constraints that restrict output. Fishing takes place on the country's lakes,
but stocks are very depleted, and live fish are being imported in an attempt to
revive the industry.
The industrial sector is
small, contributing 14.8% of GDP in 2014. Products manufactured include cement,
agricultural products, small-scale beverages, soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods,
textiles and cigarettes.Rwanda's mining industry is an important contributor,
generating US$93 million in 2008.Minerals mined include cassiterite,
wolframite, gold, and coltan, which is used in the manufacture of electronic
and communication devices such as mobile phones.
Demographics of
Religion
The largest faith in Rwanda
is Roman Catholicism, but there have been significant changes in the nation's
religious demographics since the genocide, with many conversions to evangelical
Christianity, and, to a lesser degree, Islam.According to the 2012 census,
Roman Catholics represented 43.7% of the population, Protestants (excluding
Seventh-day Adventists) 37.7%, Seventh-day Adventists 11.8%, and Muslims 2.0%;
0.2% claimed no religious beliefs and 1.3% did not state a religion.Traditional
religion, despite officially being followed by only 0.1% of the population,
retains an influence. Many Rwandans view the Christian God as synonymous with
the traditional Rwandan God Imana.
Languages
The country's principal
language is Kinyarwanda, which is spoken by nearly all Rwandans. The major
European languages during the colonial era were German, though it was never
taught or widely used, and then French, which was introduced by
LGBT
Homosexuality is generally considered a taboo topic, and there is no significant public discussion of this issue in any region of the country.
Same-sex sexual activity is legal in Rwanda, and some cabinet-level government officials have expressed support for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender people.However, Rwanda does not recognise same-sex marriages, civil unions or similar unions.
Culture of
Music and dance are an integral
part of Rwandan ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings and storytelling. The
most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed routine consisting of
three components: the umushagiriro, or cow dance, performed by women; the
intore, or dance of heroes, performed by men;and the drumming, also
traditionally performed by men, on drums known as ingoma.The best known dance
group is the National Ballet. It was established by President Habyarimana in
1974, and performs nationally and internationally.Traditionally, music is
transmitted orally, with styles varying between the social groups. Drums are of
great importance; the royal drummers enjoyed high status within the court of
the King (Mwami).Drummers play together in groups of varying sizes, usually between
seven and nine in number.The country has a growing popular music industry,
influenced by African Great Lakes, Congolese, and American music. The most
popular genre is hip hop, with a blend of dancehall, rap, ragga, R&B and
dance-pop.
Photograph depicting a bowl
shaped off-white woven basket with tall conical lid and black zigzag pattern
Rwandan woven agaseke basket
Traditional arts and crafts
are produced throughout the country, although most originated as functional
items rather than purely for decoration. Woven baskets and bowls are especially
common, notably the basket style of the agaseke.Imigongo, a unique cow dung
art, is produced in the southeast of
Fourteen regular national
holidays are observed throughout the year, with others occasionally inserted by
the government. The week following Genocide Memorial Day on 7 April is
designated an official week of mourning.The victory for the RPF over the Hutu
extremists is celebrated as Liberation Day on 4 July. The last Saturday of each
month is umuganda, a national morning of mandatory community service lasting
from 8 am to 11 am, during which all able bodied people between 18 and 65 are
expected to carry out community tasks such as cleaning streets or building
homes for vulnerable people.Most normal services close down during umuganda,
and public transportation is limited.
Cuisine
The cuisine of Rwanda is
based on local staple foods produced by subsistence agriculture such as
bananas, plantains (known as ibitoke), pulses, sweet potatoes, beans, and
cassava (manioc).Many Rwandans do not eat meat more than a few times a month.For
those who live near lakes and have access to fish, tilapia is popular.The
potato, thought to have been introduced to Rwanda by German and Belgian
colonialists, is very popular.Ugali, locally known as Ubugari (or umutsima) is
common, a paste made from cassava or maize and water to form a porridge-like
consistency that is eaten throughout the African Great Lakes.Isombe is made
from mashed cassava leaves and served with dried fish.Lunch is usually a buffet
known as mélange, consisting of the above staples and sometimes meat.Brochettes
are the most popular food when eating out in the evening, usually made from
goat but sometimes tripe, beef, or fish.In rural areas, many bars have a
brochette seller responsible for tending and slaughtering the goats, skewering
and barbecuing the meat, and serving it with grilled bananas.Milk, particularly
in a fermented yoghurt form called ikivuguto, is a common drink throughout the
country.Other drinks include a traditional beer called Ikigage made from
sorghum and urwagwa, made from bananas, which features in traditional rituals
and ceremonies.The major drinks manufacturer in Rwanda is Bralirwa, which was
established in the 1950s, a Heineken partner, and is now listed on the Rwandan
Stock Exchange.Bralirwa manufactures soft drink products from The Coca-Cola
Company, under license, including Coca-Cola, Fanta, and Sprite,and a range of
beers including Primus, Mützig, Amstel, and Turbo King.In 2009 a new brewery,
Brasseries des Mille Collines (BMC) opened, manufacturing Skol beer and a local
version known as Skol Gatanu;BMC is now owned by Belgian company Unibra.East
African Breweries also operate in the country, importing Guinness, Tusker, and
Bell, as well as whisky and spirits.
Sport
The Rwandan government,
through its Sports Development Policy, promotes sport as a strong avenue for
"development and peace building",and the government has made
commitments to advancing the use of sport for a variety of development
objectives, including education.The most popular sports in Rwanda are
association football, volleyball, basketball, athletics and Paralympic sports.Cricket
has been growing in popularity,as a result of refugees returned from Kenya,
where they had learned to play the game.Cycling, traditionally seen largely as
a mode of transport in Rwanda, is also growing in popularity as a sport;and
Team Rwanda have been the subject of a book, Land of Second Chances: The
Impossible Rise of Rwanda's Cycling Team and a film, Rising from Ashes.
Rwandans have been competing
at the Olympic Games since 1984, and the Paralympic Games since 2004.The
country sent seven competitors to the 2012 Summer Olympics in London,
representing it in athletics, swimming, mountain biking and judo,and 15
competitors to the London Summer Paralympics to compete in athletics, powerlifting
and sitting volleyball.The country has also participated in the Commonwealth
Games since joining the Commonwealth in 2009.The country's national basketball
team has been growing in prominence since the mid-2000s, with the men's team
qualifying for the final stages of the African Basketball Championship four
times in a row since 2007.The country bid unsuccessfully to host the 2013
tournament.Rwanda's national football team has appeared in the African Cup of
Nations once, in the 2004 edition of the tournament,but narrowly failed to advance
beyond the group stages.The team have failed to qualify for the competition
since, and have never qualified for the World Cup.Rwanda's highest domestic
football competition is the Rwanda National Football League;as of 2015, the
dominant team is APR FC of Kigali, having won 13 of the last 17 championships.
Rwandan clubs participate in the Kagame Interclub Cup for Central and East
African teams, sponsored since 2002 by President Kagame.
Education
in Rwanda
Prior to 2012, the Rwandan
government provided free education in state-run schools for nine years: six
years in primary and three years following a common secondary programme.In
2012, this started to be expanded to 12 years.A 2015 study suggests that while
enrollment rates in primary schools are "near ubiquity", rates of
completion are low and repetition rates high.While schooling is fee-free, there
is an expectation that parents should contribute to the cost of their
children's education by providing them with materials, supporting teacher
development and making a contribution to school construction. According to the
government, these costs should not be a basis for the exclusion of children
from education, however.There are many private schools across the country, some
church-run, which follow the same syllabus but charge fees.From 1994 until
2009, secondary education was offered in either French or English; because of
the country's increasing ties with the East African Community and the
Commonwealth, only the English syllabi are now offered.The country has a number
of institutions of tertiary education. In 2013, the public University of Rwanda
(UR) was created out of a merger of the former National University of Rwanda
and the country's other public higher education institutions.In 2013, the gross
enrollment ratio for tertiary education in Rwanda was 7.9%, from 3.6% in 2006.The
country's literacy rate, defined as those aged 15 or over who can read and
write, was 71% in 2009, up from 38% in 1978 and 58% in 1991.
Health in Rwanda
The quality of healthcare in
President Kagame has made
healthcare one of the priorities for the Vision 2020 development programme,boosting
spending on health care to 6.5% of the country's gross domestic product in
2013, compared with 1.9% in 1996.The government has devolved the financing and
management of healthcare to local communities, through a system of health
insurance providers called mutuelles de santé.The mutuelles were piloted in
1999, and were made available nationwide by the mid-2000s, with the assistance
of international development partners.Premiums under the scheme were initially
US$2 per annum; since 2011 the rate has varied on a sliding scale, with the
poorest paying nothing, and maximum premiums rising to US$8 per adult.As of
2014, more than 90% of the population was covered by the scheme.The government
has also set up training institutes including the Kigali Health Institute
(KHI), which was established in 1997 and is now part of the University of
Rwanda. In 2005, President Kagame also launched a program known as The Presidents'
Malaria Initiative.This initiative aimed to help get the most necessary
materials for prevention of malaria to the most rural areas of
In recent years
Despite these improvements,
however, the country's health profile remains dominated by communicable
diseases,and the United States Agency for International Development has
described "significant health challenges",including the rate of
maternal mortality, which it describes as "unacceptably high",as well
as the ongoing HIV/AIDS epidemic.According to the American Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, travelers to Rwanda are highly recommended to take
preventive malaria medication as well as make sure they are up to date with
vaccines such as yellow fever.
0 Comments